The system of consonant and vowel phonemes of different languages
Phonetics- the science of the sound side of human speech. The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek. phonetikos "sound, voice" (phone sound).
Without the pronunciation and perception by ear of the sounds that make up the sound shell of words, verbal communication is impossible. On the other hand, for verbal communication, it is extremely important to distinguish the spoken word from others that are similar in sound.
Therefore, in the phonetic system of the language, means are needed that serve to convey and distinguish between significant units of speech - words, their forms, phrases and sentences.
1. Phonetic means of the Russian language
The phonetic means of the Russian language include:
Stress (verbal and phrasal)
Intonation.
Speech sounds have different qualities and therefore serve in the language as a means for distinguishing words. Often words differ in only one sound, the presence of an extra sound compared to another word, the order of the sounds.
For example: jackdaw - pebble,
fight - howl,
mouth - mole,
The traditional classification of speech sounds is their division into consonants and vowels.
The consonants are different:
2) at the place of noise generation,
3) according to the method of noise generation,
4) by the absence or presence of softness.
Participation of noise and voice. According to the participation of noise and voice, consonants are divided into noisy and sonorous. Sonorants are called consonants formed with the help of voice and slight noise: [m], [m "], [n], [n"], [l], [l "], [p], [p"]. Noisy consonants are divided into voiced and deaf. Noisy voiced consonants are [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d "], [g], ["], [s ], [h "], , formed by noise with the participation of the voice. Noisy deaf consonants include: [p], [p "], [f], [f"], [k], [k "], [t], [t"], [s], [s"] , [w], ["], [x], [x"], [c], [h "], formed only with the help of one noise, without the participation of the voice.
Location of noise. Depending on which active organ of speech (lower lip or tongue) dominates in the formation of sound, consonants are divided into labial and lingual. If we take into account the passive organ in relation to which the lip or tongue articulates, the consonants can be labial [b], [n] [m] and labiodental [c], [f]. Lingual are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual. Anterior-lingual can be dental [t], [d], [s], [h], [c], [n], [l] and palatine-tooth [h], [w], [g], [p] ; middle-lingual - middle-palatal; posterior lingual - posterior palate [g], [k], [x].
Noise generation methods. Depending on the difference in the methods of noise formation, consonants are divided into occlusive [b], [n], [d], [t], [g], [k], fricative [c], [f], [s], [h ], [w], [g], [x], affricates [c], [h], stop-pass: nasal [n], [m], lateral, or oral, [l] and trembling (vibrants) [ R].
Hardness and softness of consonants. The absence or presence of softness (palatalization) determines the hardness and softness of consonants. Palatalization (Latin palatum - hard palate) is the result of the midpalatal articulation of the tongue, which complements the main articulation of the consonant sound. Sounds formed with such additional articulation are called soft, and those formed without it are called hard.
A characteristic feature of the consonant system is the presence of pairs of sounds in it, correlative in deafness-voicedness and in hardness-softness. The correlation of paired sounds lies in the fact that in some phonetic conditions (before vowels) they differ as two different sounds, and in other conditions (at the end of a word) they do not differ and coincide in their sound.
For example: rose - dew and rose - grew [grew - grew].
So the paired consonants [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [d] - [t], [h] - [s], [g] - [w], [g] - [k], which, therefore, form correlative pairs of consonants in deafness-voicedness.
The correlative series of deaf and voiced consonants is represented by 12 pairs of sounds. Paired consonants are distinguished by the presence of a voice (voiced) or its absence (deaf). Sounds [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n "], [r], [r "] - unpaired voiced, [x], [c], [h "] - unpaired deaf.
The classification of Russian consonants is presented in the table:
|
By way |
Local |
labial |
dental |
dental |
medium |
back- |
|
|
explosive |
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fricatives |
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Affricants |
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Sonorant |
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explosive |
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The composition of consonant sounds, taking into account the deafness-voicedness correlation, is shown in the following table
(["], ["] - long hissing, paired in deafness-voicedness; compare [dro" and], ["and]).
The hardness and softness of consonants, like deafness-voicedness, differ in some positions, but do not differ in others, which leads to the presence in the consonant system of a correlative series of hard and soft sounds. So, [l] - [l "] are distinguished before the vowel [o] (compare: lot - ice [lot - l "from], and before the sound [e] not only [l] - [l"], but also other paired hard-soft sounds (cf .: [l "eu], [c" eu], [b" eu], etc.).
Long and double consonants. In the phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language, there are two long consonants - soft hissing ["] and ["] (yeast, cabbage soup). These long hissing sounds are not opposed to the sounds [w], [g], which are unpaired hard ones. As a rule, long consonants in Russian are formed only at the junctions of morphemes and are a combination of sounds. For example, in the word reason [rΛ udk], a long sound arose at the junction of the prefix raz- and the root court-, cf .: [pΛ "elk], [yl], [l "c" ik] (fake, sewed, pilot). The sounds that arise in these cases cannot be defined as long ones, since they are devoid of a distinctive function, they are not opposed to short sounds.In essence, such "long" sounds are not long, but double.
Cases of long consonants (quarrel, yeast, etc.) in the roots of Russian words are rare. Words with double consonants in the roots are usually foreign (telegram, gamma, antenna, etc.). Such words in live pronunciation lose vowel length, which is often reflected in modern spelling (literature, attack, corridor, etc.).
Sound laws in the field of consonants:
Stunning of the final voiced occurs under the following conditions:
1) before a pause: [pr "ishol post] (the train came); 2) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only deaf, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [j] and [c]: [praf he ], [our sat], [slap ja], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your kind).
By virtue of this law, voiced consonants before the deaf turn into paired deaf, and deaf in the same position into voiced. The voicing of voiceless consonants is less common than the stunning of voiced ones; the transition of voiced to deaf creates homophones: [dushk - dushk] (shackle - darling), [in "and e with" t "and - in" and e with "t" and] (to carry - to lead), [fp "bp" and e m "yeshka - fp" bp "and e m" yeshka] (alternately - interspersed).
Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [c], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Λtjest] (departure), yours, yours.
Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [pΛhotk] (gait), [collection] (collection); 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [where "elu] (to business), [zd" elm] (with business); 3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [got-t] (a year), [before] (daughter); 4) at the junction of significant words pronounced without a pause: [rock-kΛzy] (goat horn), [ras-p "at"] (five times).
The composition of consonants, taking into account the correlative series of hard and soft sounds, is presented in the following table:
Softness assimilation has a regressive character: the consonant softens, becoming like the subsequent soft consonant. In this position, not all consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften and not all soft consonants cause a softening of the previous sound.
All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften in the following weak positions: 1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b" ate], [c" eu], [m" ate], [s" ate] (white, weight, chalk, villages), etc .; 2) before [and]: [m "silt], [n" silt "and] (mil, drank).
Before unpaired [g], [w], [c], soft consonants are impossible, with the exception of [l], [l "] (compare the end - the ring).
Dental [h], [s], [n], [p], [e], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [c], [f] are most susceptible to softening. They do not soften before soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet, etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l "eu]; compare [Λ" op]) and before the particle ([grew - l" and]; compare [rΛsl" and]) ( here is the forest, otter, did it grow, did it grow).
Consonants [h] and [s] soften before soft [t "], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m "ks" t "], [v" and e z "d" e], [f-ka "b], [kaz" n "] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). Softening [s], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them in front of soft labials: [raz "d" and e l "it"], [r's" t "and e nut"], [b" no "-n" and e in), [b" and e s "-s" silt] (divide, stretch, without it, without strength). Before soft labial softening [s], [s], [d], [ t] is possible inside the root and at the end of prefixes on -z, as well as in the prefix s- and in a preposition consonant with it: [s"m"ex], [z"in"cr"], [d"in"cr" ], [t "v" kr "], [s" p "kt"], [s "-n" them], [is "-pkch"], [rΛz "d" kt "] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).
The labials do not soften before soft teeth: [pt "kn" h "bk], [n" eft "], [vz" at "] (chick, oil, take).
These cases of assimilative softness of consonants show that the action of assimilation in the modern Russian literary language is not always distinguished by a strict sequence.
Complete assimilation of [h], [s] occurs: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [at"], [pΛat"] (compress, unclench); [yt"], [pΛryt"] (sew, embroider); ["from], [pΛ" from] (account, calculation); [various "ik], [out" ik] (peddler, cab driver);
2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [arm], [arm] (with heat, with a ball); [b "and e ar], [bi e ar] (without heat, without a ball).
The combination of zzh inside the root, as well as the combination of zhzh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [zh"]: [on "b] (later), (I drive); [in "and], [dro" and] (reins, yeast). Optionally, in these cases, a long hard [g] can be pronounced.
A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] following them [h], [c], resulting in long ["], : [Λ" from] (report), (fkra b] (in short) .
The existing classification of vowels takes into account the following conditions for the formation of vowels:
1) the degree of elevation of the tongue
2) the place of the rise of the tongue
3) participation or non-participation of the lips.
The most significant of these conditions is the position of the tongue, which changes the shape and volume of the oral cavity, on the state of which the quality of the vowel depends.
According to the degree of vertical rise of the language, vowels of three degrees of rise are distinguished: upper vowels [i], [s], [y]; vowels of the middle rise e [e], [o]; low vowel [a].
The movement of the tongue horizontally leads to the formation of three rows of vowels: front vowels [i], e [e]; middle vowels [s], [a] and back vowels [y], [o].
The participation or non-participation of lips in the formation of vowels is the basis for dividing vowels into labialized (rounded) [o], [y] and non-labialized (non-rounded) [a], e [e], [u], [s].
Table of vowel sounds of the modern Russian literary language
Sound law in the field of vowels.
Vowel reduction. The change (weakening) of vowels in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. Distinguish between the position of unstressed vowels in the first prestressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in other unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in weak position of the second degree undergo more reduction than vowels in weak position of the first degree.
Vowels in a weak position of the first degree: [vΛly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [b "and e yes] (trouble), etc.
Vowels in a weak position of the second degree: [parlvos] (locomotive); [kargΛnda] (Karaganda); [kalkla] (bells); [p "l" and e on] (shroud); [voice] (voice), [exclamation] (exclamation), etc.
The basis for the classification of vowels is the row and rise of the tongue, as well as the work of the lips.
Articulatory vowels are distributed horizontally in a row, that is, in that part of the tongue that is raised when pronouncing a given sound. There are three rows, and, accordingly, three types of speech sounds, which are front, middle and back.
Front vowels - and e; middle row - s; back row at about a.
Vertically, vowels differ in elevation - that is, in the degree of elevation of one or another part of the language during the formation of a given vowel. There are usually three rises - upper, middle and lower. In Russian, high vowels include y y, middle vowels - e o, and low vowels include a.
According to the position of the lips, vowels are divided into labials, that is, in the formation of which the lips take part - o y (labialized, rounded) and unrounded, that is, in the formation of which the lips do not take part - a e and s. Labial vowels are usually back row.
Nasalization.
In a number of languages there are nasal vowels, for example, in French, Polish. In Old Slavonic, nasal vowels were also represented, which in Cyrillic were depicted with special letters: yus large, or o nasal, and yus small, or e nasal. Articulation of nasal vowels occurs when raised? the palatine curtain and the lowered back of the tongue, so that the air stream simultaneously and equally enters the mouth and nose.
diphthongs are elements of two vowels, forming a single and indivisible vowel, pronounced in one syllable. Of the two elements of a diphthong, one always prevails over the other, forming the core of the diphthong. This nucleus is always shock.
All diphthongs are divided into two large groups: ascending and descending. Ascending are those diphthongs where a weak and a strong vowel or two weak vowels are combined. Descending are those diphthongs where a strong and a weak vowel are combined.
Diphthong (Greek δίφθογγος, (diphthongos), literally “with two sounds” or “with two tones”) - sounds whose articulation implies a transition from one vowel sound type to another. Usually, in the composition of diphthongs, one of the components is syllabic, while the others are not. If the first component is syllabic, then such a diphthong is called descending, if the second is ascending. The role of non-syllabic components is most often played by non-syllabic correspondences to closed vowels, that is, [w] and [j], for example, in English "kite", loʊ "low"; however, there are other options, for example, in ancient English language there were descending diphthongs [æa] and [æo]. Balanced diphthongs are very rare, for example, in the Nivkh language.
A distinction should be made between phonetic and phonological diphthongs. So, phonetically diphthongs are, for example, sound complexes at the end of Russian words strong, big, but phonologically they should be analyzed as combinations of a vowel with a consonant /j/. In each case, the analysis depends on the particular language.
The letter is often indicated by digraphs - stable combinations of two letters, read the same way in almost all cases. At the same time, the pronunciation of letters does not coincide with their reading according to the alphabet.
consonant system.
The classification of consonants is more complex because there are more consonants in the languages of the world than there are vowels.
Noisy - sonorous. As part of the consonant sounds of any language, two large classes of consonants are distinguished: noisy, that is, sounds in the formation of which noise plays the main role, and sonorants, that is, sounds in the formation of which the main role is played by the voice that occurs during the vibration of the vocal cords.
The difference of consonants according to the nature of the obstacle and the method of overcoming it. Consonants differ depending on what kind of barriers the organs of speech form for the air flow coming from the lungs. If the organs of speech are closed, then the air stream opens them. As a result, stop, or explosive consonants appear. In those cases when the organs of speech are not closed, but only brought together, a gap remains between them. An air jet passes into this gap, a characteristic air friction is formed, and the consonants arising from this noise are called fricative (from the word gap), or fricative (from the Latin name fricare - “to rub”, since the air, as it were, rubs against the gap in a loose adjacent organs of speech). AT various languages there are also such consonants that combine the features of explosives with the features of fricative consonants. Such consonants, as it were, begin with an explosive element and end with a slotted element. They are called affricates. The Russian affricate ts consists of a plosive t and a fricative s, the affricate h consists of a plosive t and a fricative sh. Affricates are found in English (Georg), German (Deutsch) and many other languages.
According to the method of formation of the barrier, trembling consonant sounds are also distinguished, during the formation of which the barrier is formed by the periodic approach of the active speech organ to the passive one until a very weak connection occurs, which is immediately broken by a stream of air emerging from the lungs.
If the first series of differences in the area of consonants is determined by the nature of the barriers that stand in the way of the air flow coming from the lungs, then the second series of differences is associated with the activity of the active organs of speech - the tongue and lips. According to this series of differences, consonants are divided into lingual and labial. When the anterior part of the tongue is involved in lingual articulations, anterior lingual consonants arise. Middle-lingual and back-lingual consonants are also possible.
Crushing is carried out further: among the anterior lingual consonants, dental consonants, for example, t, and alveolar ones, for example, sh, are distinguished. When articulating middle-lingual consonants, the middle part of the back of the tongue rises and approaches the hard palate (for example, the German so-called Ich-Laut in words like ich, Recht). When articulating posterior lingual sounds, the back of the tongue approaches with a soft palate. Back-lingual Russians include k, g, x. In addition to lingual, this group of consonants also includes labial consonants, which in turn are divided into labial-labial (bilabial, for example, Russian p) or labial-tooth, for example, c). The difference between labial and labial and dental is easy to detect experimentally: for this, you just need to alternately pronounce the Russian sounds n and v several times.
The third series of differences in the system of consonants is created by the so-called palatalization (from the Latin palatum - hard palate). Palatalization, or softness, is the result of raising the middle and front of the tongue towards the hard palate. Any consonants can be palatalized or softened, except for middle-lingual ones. The presence of palatalized consonants is a striking feature of Russian phonetics.
Similar information.
Phoneme is an abstract unit of language, embodied in speech in sets of positionally alternating sounds. Angle brackets are used to designate a phoneme -<>.
Modifications of a phoneme depending on its position in a word are called it allophones(from Greek allos "another", phone "sound") or phoneme variants.
Relationship between phoneme and sound (allophone) - it is the relationship between the general (phoneme) and the particular (allophone). The phoneme is related to the allophone as invariant to option.(Option - from lat. variants- changing; invariant - from lat. invariants- unchanging. Invariant - it is an abstract linguistic entity, a unit abstracted from its concrete realizations, incarnations.) All actually pronounced sounds are allophones. Allophones are combined into a relatively small number of phonemes. Thus, phoneme- this is the general, existing in many private manifestations - allophones.
A phoneme is thus always represented by one of its allophones, and in this sense is not itself a particular sound. Each of the obligatory allophones is an “equal” representative of the phoneme, even if it is not the main one. This circumstance is often overlooked due to the fact that a phoneme is usually called the "name" of its main allophone. For example, we say "phoneme<a>", pronouncing at the same time one specific allophone, but implying all possible ones. The properties of allophones are predictable, since we know the rules for the interaction of sounds and their changes in different positions.
What is the difference between sound and phoneme?
1) A phoneme is a unit of language characterized by a high degree of abstraction, and sound is a unit of speech. In speech, in a particular word, the same phoneme can be realized in different ways. (sound is the realization of a phoneme in speech).
2) The number of uttered sounds is actually infinite. As evidenced by the data of experimental phonetics, it is impossible to reproduce the same sound in such a way that it completely, in all nuances, corresponds to its prototype. Therefore, the number of sounds pronounced in speech can be determined in different ways, depending on the degree of accuracy with which the sound is determined - by ear or with the help of precise instruments.
The number of phonemes is finite. In Russian, 5 vowel phonemes are distinguished (or 6 according to P(L)FSH), and the number of consonant phonemes ranges from 32 to 37, depending on the phonological position of the scientist.
Controversial issues in the phoneme system of the Russian language.
Isolation of 5 vowel phonemes<а, о, и, э, у>and 32 consonant phonemes<п – п’, б – б’, в – в’, ф – ф’, м – м’, т – т’, д – д’, с – с’, з – з’, ц, н – н’, л – л’, ш, ж, ч’, р – р’, к, г, х, j>does not cause controversy between phonological trends.
When establishing a system of phonemes of the Russian language, the issue of phonemic independence raises a discussion. s and soft posterior lingual g', k', x'. There is an opinion that s is a shade and, and soft posterior lingual - shades of hard. Let's consider these questions in more detail.
1. Phonemic independence s. Notable parallelism in use and and s was noted long ago (as early as Lomonosov) in connection with the opposition of letters, before which hard consonants are used, to letters, before which only soft ones are used. With such opposition and turned out to be on a par with "soft vowels" i, yo, yu, e and opposed s, included in one row with "hard vowels" a, oh, uh, uh.
The thought that and and s make up one phoneme, was first expressed by Baudouin de Courtenay. He developed the doctrine of i mutable"(i.e. and variable) and in transcription instead of and and s, used badge im(letter t- abbreviation "mutable"). When pronouncing im“there is no single norm, there is no single type of a given phoneme or a given phonetic representation, and the performance is doubled in accordance with what is thought or imagined before the beginning of the bifurcated phoneme im: the approach of the middle part of the tongue to the palate is thought - im pronounced more forward and gives the impression i(associated with the Russian grapheme and or i); imagining before im lack of approach of the middle part of the tongue to the palate, we perform im as a back vowel, the acoustic impression of which is associated with the Russian grapheme s"(Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Introduction to linguistics. St. Petersburg, 1917, pp. 85 - 86). Baudouin admitted that in the Old Russian language and and s were independent phonemes, but later, after the transformation of soft consonants into special phonemes, they merged into one phoneme - i m. In light of this, it is clear that for Baudouin the difference and and s as varieties im associated with the softness and hardness of the preceding consonant.
L. V. Shcherba also considered the issue of and and s, but came to different conclusions: “Certainly, independent vowel phonemes of the Russian language are a, uh, and, oh, w. Concerning s, then it is a largely independent phoneme, which is in intimate relations with and, of which it is, as it were, a shade "(L.V. Shcherba. Russian vowels in qualitative and quantitative terms. SPb., 1912 p. 50). Shcherba indicated signs indicating a lack of independence s: 1)s not used as a separate word; 2) not at the beginning of a word; 3) possible only after solid consonants, where it replaces and:<играт">-<сыграт">; 4) is used in the solid declension in parallel with and soft version:<вады> - <з"имл"и>. However, Shcherba still considered it possible to recognize s"an independent phoneme, although perhaps not to the extent a, uh, and, oh, u"(L.V. Shcherba. Russian vowels in qualitative and quantitative terms. St. Petersburg, 1912 p. 50), since and and s do not alternate in the roots under the influence of subsequent consonants, while the shades of other phonemes alternate, for example: [heat] - [heat"].
In the future, some linguists (R. I. Avanesov, A. A. Reformatsky and others), based mainly on the above considerations of Shcherba, tended to recognize s shade and; point of view that affirms phonemic independence s, defended by L. R. Zinder, M. I. Matusevich, A. N. Gvozdev, Ya. V. Loya and others.
Without going into the details of the dispute on this issue, we note that there is no sufficient grounds refuse s in phonemic independence. The following arguments can be presented in support of this.
a) Phonemes s, like all other phonemes, forming and identifying functions are characteristic. The latter also manifests itself in the fact that the presence of a given phoneme in the sound shell of a word can destroy the connection between sound and meaning; thereby destroying the linguistic unit. So, the sound shell of the word silt collapses when put in place and other vowels (al, ol, el, al, st), because there are meaningless sound combinations. It is clear that in this case s reveals the above functions along with other phonemes.
b) Phonemes and and s can act in identical phonetic conditions, namely, at the beginning of a word. There are even several pairs of words that differ only in the initial and- s: hiccup(speak in and)- hiccup, hiccup- hiccup, hiccup - yap. These words are formed from the names of the corresponding letters, which are indeclinable neuter nouns (cf. capital and, lowercase s). Also at the beginning is s in some foreign geographical names: Yyson, Yndin, Ym-Chon, Yntaly, Ytyk-Kyuyol, Ynykchansky. Finally, at the beginning of a word s also found in the title of the film "Operation Y and other adventures of Shurik".
in) S cannot be considered a shade and, since shades always arise under certain phonetic conditions and outside these conditions can only be pronounced after special training. So, native Russian speakers easily pronounce the closed front at in the word [pl "un"], but they are unlikely to be able to pronounce it in isolation, not between soft consonants, and, of course, they do not single it out in their minds as a special unit that does not coincide with the "usual" at in the word [here]. A completely different situation with s. It is easily isolated, pronounced in an independent, phonetically unconditioned position and perceived by native speakers as a special language unit. The vowel [s] can be pulled as much as you like, and o e turns into [and], which happens in other allophones of phonemes, for example, when pulling the sound [ä] from the word five[p'ät '] it goes into [a].
d) the sounds [s] and [and] have a different origin, since [s] historically goes back to, and not to [i]. The facts of the history of the language are not direct evidence of the differences between [s] and [and], but together with others they play a certain role.
2. Phonemic independence k", g', x". The phonemic independence of soft backlinguals is questioned on the basis of the following considerations:
1) k", g", x" can only be in a phonetically dependent position - before front vowels and and e. Therefore, it is not possible to determine whether their softness is combinatorially conditioned (appearing under the influence of front vowels) or their softness is independent, for example ru [k] a, ru [k] y - ru [k '] and, ru [k '] e, but [g] a, but [g] y - but [g '] and, but [g '] e, co [x] a, co [x] y - co [x '] and, co [x '] e;
2) to", g", x" in native Russian words cannot be combined with non-front vowels a oh u, and only in front of them it is possible to establish whether the softness of the back-lingual consonants is positionally independent. The compatibility with these vowels in borrowed words cannot be taken into account when establishing the phoneme system of the Russian language;
3) to", g", x" do not occur in a position that is strong in hardness-softness - at the end of a word, where other soft consonants are possible.
Difficulties in establishing phonemic status in the IMF k', g', x' overcome in the following way. Sound [to"] before [a, o] appears in word forms weave:<тк"ош>, <тк"от>etc. This is only one old primordial Russian word, but belongs to the category of commonly used ones. Therefore, the sound [k '] implements the phoneme<к’>. from the fact that [k] and [k '] are opposed in one position, it follows that such a possibility exists for other velar languages - [g] - [g '], [x] - [x '], in particular, it is realized in neologisms like Shvakhyatina from him. Schwach - ‘weak’ by model seryatina, sour meat, sour meat. Therefore, it is believed that [k’, g’, x’] embody phonemes<к’, г’, х’>.
In SPFS k', g', x' are considered independent phonemes on the basis that [k ', g ', x '] may be placed before non-front vowels [a, o, y] in loanwords, for example: cuvette, manicure, Guys, Cui, Kharms, Curacao, Cologne, Gyulsary, alarmist. Hence, k", g", x" may relate to k, g, x as well as other soft consonants. This puts them in the rank of independent units of the system of phonemes. Matches of the same type to-to" in<рука> - <рук"э>are quite similar to the correspondences of the type d- d" in<вада> - <вад"э>.
Recognizing phonemic autonomy s towards and and k", g", x" towards k, g, x, At the same time, it should be noted that this independence has a somewhat flawed character, which is explained by the insufficient development of these oppositions, which are in the growth stage.
How to distinguish between a phoneme and a variant of a phoneme?
From a comparison of pairs such as house - that, ladies - there, volume - there, house - ladies, languid - dark we can conclude that d - t, o - a, t - t "are used to distinguish words by meaning. This means that these sounds are separate phonemes.
Ways to determine the function of sound ( whether it is a phoneme or an allophone of some phoneme):
1. It is necessary to choose at least one minimal pair, i.e. two such words that differ only in comparable sounds: bar - steam, mountain - bark, board - melancholy, heat - ball, etc.
2. To prove the independence of some phonemes, a large number of minimal pairs can be given, as, for example, for t-t ": descendants - darkness, skinny - mother-in-law, current - tech, life - to be, brother - to take, killed - to kill, washed - to wash etc. Opposed in hardness - softness d - d", s - z", s - s" are used in a relatively small number of minimal pairs. But to recognize two compared sounds as separate phonemes, it is enough to use these sounds in at least one minimal pair .
In the absence of minimum pairs (or difficulties arising in their selection), another criterion proposed by N.S. Trubetskoy: if the replacement of one sound in a word with another distorts the word beyond recognition, then this sound is an independent phoneme. So, when replacing /h "/ with /h/ or /ts/ with /ts"/ in words containing these sounds, the meaning of the words is not distorted beyond recognition, only the “words” formed in this way acquire an unnatural “foreign language accent” . Compare: /h "ac/ and /hour/, /circus/ and /c"irk/. Another result will be obtained if in words with solid /g/ and /k/, for example, year, cat these same sounds are replaced by the corresponding soft ones - the resulting "words" become incomprehensible. Therefore, we can conclude that /h"/ and /h/ are variants of the same phoneme, like /ts/ and /ts"/, - in contrast to /g/ and /g"/, /k/ and /k" /, which are separate phonemes.
The composition of vowel phonemes stands out in a significatively and perceptually strong position. Such a position for vowel phonemes is the position under stress before hard consonants. Different phonological schools allocate a different number of vowel phonemes: IPF - 5 phonemes (,<э>, <и>), SPFS - 6 phonemes (,<э>, <и>, <ы>). The question of the existence of a phoneme is controversial.<ы>. IDF does not consider<ы>as an independent phoneme, and the sound [s] is considered a positional variety of the phoneme<и>, that is, a variation. Arguments: 1) the sound [s] is absent in an absolutely strong position at the beginning of a word under stress; occurs only in one Russian word - the name of the letter y and in terms of ykat, ykanie. 2) the sound [s] is not pronounced after soft consonants, in the same morpheme it alternates positionally with [and]: game - play along, July - pre-July (in the roots of words); hair - moose, smart - winter (in flexions).
Representatives of the SPFS consider<ы>and<и>different phonemes, primarily because of the awareness of the sounds [s] and [and], the ability to distinguish them and pronounce them independently.
Thus, depending on the recognition of independence<ы>in modern Russian there are five or six vowel phonemes (,<э>, <и>, <ы/и>).
Composition of consonant phonemes. Moscow phonologists believe that in the Russian language there are 34 consonants phonem-labial:<п п" б б" м м"ф ф" в в"тт" д д" с с" з з" ц л л" н н"ш ж ш": ж": ч" р р" j к г х>. At the same time, the following are not recognized as independent phonemes: 1) soft [g’], [k’], [x’], because, according to representatives of the IMF, these sounds are only variants of phonemes<г, к, х>because independently, without the help of other phonemes, they cannot distinguish between the sound shells of words or morphemes: they cannot be contrasted in terms of hardness / softness at the absolute end of a word; occur only in a phonetically dependent position - before the front vowels [i] and [e], where it is impossible to determine whether the consonants are palatalized or their softness is independent; cannot be in position before non-front vowels [y], [o], [a];
Petersburg phonologists count 35 consonant phonemes. in some cases they act as semantic distinguishers: [k]uri - [k '] yuri, t [k '] no. Despite the impossibility of using soft /g', k', x'/ at the end of a word, in modern Russian in some cases they are contrasted in hardness-softness before non-front vowels [a, o, y] in borrowed words: kiosker, liquor , curé, giaour, etc., but such cases are extremely rare.
Disagreements also exist regarding the interpretation of complex sounds [sh '], [zh ']. IPF consider them as independent special phonemes, referring to the fact that they cannot be divided into two short soft sounds. Representatives of the SPFS refuse to see in this case a special kind of phonemes, pointing to the insignificant phonological activity of such complex sounds.
Thus, evaluating both schools, it should be noted that each of them has its own strengths and weak sides, and often the shortcomings of one school automatically turn out to be the advantages of another. According to the St. Petersburg Phonological School, there are 41 phonemes in Russian: [a e and o y n n "b b" m m "f f" c c "t t" d d "n n" s "z z" p p "l l" sh j ch y k k "g g" x x "]. The Moscow phonological school does not single out the phoneme [s], considering it equal to the phoneme [i]; hard and soft variants of phonemes [k] are also not distinguished, [r] and [x] In this case, 39 phonemes are obtained.
The system of vowels and consonant phonemes in SRY. Three aspects of their study.
AT modern science(see, for example, AG - 80; M.V. Panov “Russian phonetics”, R.I. Avanesov “Phonetics of the modern Russian language”, etc.) the system of consonant phonemes is characterized from three points of view:
From a phonetic point of view consonants are considered according to the following criteria:
where sounds are produced(labial-labial; labio-dental; front-lingual, middle-lingual, back-lingual, for example: [ b] – labial-labial, [ R] - front lingual, etc.);
by way of education(occlusive, slotted, occlusive-passing (nasal and lateral); trembling, affricates, for example: [ b] – stop, [ with] - slotted, etc.);
by the participation of the middle part of the tongue(soft and hard consonants, for example: [ b] - solid, [ b'] - soft, etc.).
consonant phonemes are contrasted according to two differential features: voiced - deafness, softness - hardness.
According to voicedness - deafness, 12 pairs of consonant phonemes are opposed:
<б> <б ’ > <в> <в ’ > <г> <г ’ > <д> <д ’ > <ж> <ж# ’ > <з> <з ’ >
<п> <п ’ > <ф> <ф ’ > <к> <к ’ > <т> <т ’ > <ш> <ш# ’ > <с> <с ’ >, i.e. 24 phonemes.
13 phonemes are unpaired on this basis:
<м> <н> <р> <л> <м ’ > <н ’ > <р ’ > <л ’ >
In strong positions, paired consonants are opposed, in weak positions they are neutralized. The allocation of positions is based on the opposition of phonemes.
Strong positions of consonant phonemes in terms of voicedness - deafness:
1) before all vowel phonemes: <with ed><h ed>;
2) before sonorant phonemes: <with frame><h times >;
3) before phonemes<в>, <в ’ >: <with howl><h out>;
4) before a phoneme
According to softness - hardness, 15 pairs of consonant phonemes are opposed:
<б> <в><г> <д> <з> <к> <л> <м> <н> <п> <р> <с> <т> <ф><х> <б ’ ><в ’ ><г ’ ><д ’ ><з ’ ><к ’ ><л ’ ><м ’ ><н ’ ><п ’ ><р ’ ><с ’ ><т ’ ><ф ’ ><х ’ >, i.e. 30 phonemes.
Extra-paired in the system on the basis of softness - hardness are 7 phonemes:<ж>, <ш>, <ц>, <ч>, <ш# ’ >, <ж# ’ >,
Strong positions of consonant phonemes on the basis of softness - hardness:
1) the position of the end of the word: <брáт>,<брáт ’ > ;
2) position before all vowels: <t'ema>,<атэл ’ jэ> ;
3) for front-lingual phonemes, the position in front of back-lingual and hard labials: <поd bavi t ’ >, <свád' ba>;
4) for phonemes<л> <л ’ >position before all consonant phonemes: <воl na><воl' na>.
This is the paradigmatics of phonemes. Thus, there are 37 consonant phonemes in the modern phonological system. The syntagmatics of phonemes is manifested in weak positions.
the historical alternations of consonants involved in modern word and form formation are characterized. for example , hand - manual. In the formation of an adjective, not only affixation is involved, but also alternation k - h(the alternation in this group of words is morphonologized).
These three aspects are reflected in school textbooks: the phonetic aspect in the section “Phonetics. Graphics ”(see the physiological and acoustic characteristics of consonants), the phonological aspect in the same section, when it comes to the semantic function of consonants<d om>,<tóm>, about the opposition of consonants according to two differential features: voicedness - deafness, softness - hardness (§ 37, 38), morphonological aspect in the section "Morfemics" (§ 49, V.V. Babaitseva, L.D. Chesnokova. Russian language Theory, 5-9 cells, 1992).
The system of vowel phonemes of the modern Russian language.
In modern science (see, for example, AG - 80; M.V. Panov "Russian phonetics", R.I. Avanesov "Phonetics of the modern Russian language", etc.), the system of vowel phonemes is characterized from three points of view:
From a phonetic point of view vowel sounds are characterized at the point of elevation of the tongue(the following groups are distinguished: front vowels - [ and], [and e], [b], middle row – [ s], [a], [α ], [b,], back row – [ about], [at]), according to the degree of elevation of the tongue(high vowels - [ and], [s], [at], high-mid vowels - [ and e], [b], middle vowels - [ uh], [b,], [about], low vowels - [ a], [α ]), by the participation of the lips(labialized vowels - [ about], [at], non-labialized - all the rest).
From a phonological point of view vowel phonemes are characterized by two differential features: according to the degree of elevation of the tongue(high vowel phonemes - <и>, <у>, mid rise phonemes - <э>, <о> , low rise phoneme - <а> ) and on labialization(vowels labialized - <о> , <у> , non-labialized vowels - <и>, <э>, <а> ). These signs are revealed in an absolutely strong position: at(at the beginning of a word, under stress, before a solid consonant phoneme).
In this position, five vowel phonemes are distinguished in modern Russian: <а>, <о>, <у>, <и>, <э>.
From a morphological point of view historical vowel alternations are considered. At the same time, their participation in modern word and form formation is analyzed. For example, condition - cause. alternation o//a- shaping tool. The alternation is morphonologized. To you - to you- (alternating e//o– not morphonologized, i.e. is not a shaping tool).
These three aspects are reflected in school textbooks: the phonetic aspect in the section “Phonetics. Graphics” (see the physiological and acoustic characteristics of vowel sounds), the phonological aspect in the same section, which deals with the semantic function of vowel phonemes ( house - ladies - smoke), morphonological aspect in the section "Morfemics" (V.V. Babaitseva, L.D. Chesnokova. Russian language. Theory. 5 - 9 cells, 1992. § 49).
